The Influence of Greek Thought on Modern Science and...

The Influence of Greek Thought on Modern Science and Mathematics Parallels can be drawn from Greek thought and compared to today’s modern world views. This comparison also brings forth the influences of the Greek philosophies to the world’s contemporary aspects. More specifically, mathematics and science elicit the relationships of the ancient Greek beliefs and the existing theories and truths. Mathematics, as it relates to the Greek era and the present time, had created and still creates a very new approach to the thoughts of the mechanics of nature. For instance, Pythagoras, the Greek mathematician and philosopher, believed the physical world would be explained by numbers. He used his theory of numbers and applied them to†¦show more content†¦The theory of relativity is the theory of measurement; therefore, Einstein uses numbers in relation with the fundamental laws of physics. Physics is the mechanics of nature, which can be calculated through use of numbers. The application of Pythagoras’ theory to Einstein’s relativity is obviously not directly related; however, the relevancy of mathematics used with the accordance of nature has influenced many intellectuals, which in turn directly assisted Einstein’s theory. Some of these intellectuals are Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Newton. The field of science during the times of the Greeks have greatly influenced the modern world as one perceives it in the present day. The atomic theory has much responsibility for the relation of Greek thought and modern beliefs. Democritus was one of the fir4st Greek philosophers to explain the theory of the atom. He said that it was indivisible. Furthermore, he explained that each element is made of particles, and that change occurs by the transfer of the atoms. In comparison to the modern day atomic theory, Democritus had the correct notion as to the significance of the atom-it is indivisible. From the research done, Democritus’ idea of the atom did not directly influence the contemporary theory of the atom. The GreekShow MoreRelatedHow The Ancient Greeks And Romans Still Influence Our Modern World869 Words   |  4 Pagesimportant for students to understand how the ancient Greeks and Romans still influence our modern world. Ancient Greece was the birthplace modern mathematics, science, philosophy, architecture, literature, theater, art, architecture, Democracy, Law, and competitive sports. The term mathematics was invented by Pythagoras. It means that which is learned. In turn, mathematical theories were applied to building the great architecture of Greece. The great Greek temples are visual representations of the mathematicalRead MoreEgyptian Contributions And Greek Culture1678 Words   |  7 Pagescontributions were critical to the development of Greek culture. 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Morals of Euthanasia Free Essays

Dena Furey Euthanasia March 8, 2013 Euthanasia Euthanasia is the act of purposely making or helping someone die, instead of allowing nature to take its course. Basically, euthanasia means killing in the name of compassion. Often surrounded by heated arguments from both those in favor of and those against the practice, human euthanasia spurs the most conflict within political circles, differing cultural and religious attitudes, and the health care system. We will write a custom essay sample on Morals of Euthanasia or any similar topic only for you Order Now I will be defending Tom L. Beauchamp’s theory that euthanasia is ethically moral and sometimes permissible. Beauchamp’s theory states that if voluntary passive euthanasia is sometimes permissible, then voluntary active euthanasia is sometimes permissible. Voluntary passive euthanasia is when a patient refuses treatment, such as a do not resuscitate (DNR) order. Voluntary active euthanasia is when a patient requests treatment, such a lethal dose. Beauchamp has a negative and positive thesis to his theory. They are: * Negative thesis-you cannot condemn physician assisted suicide by merely invoking the position of letting die and killing. Positive thesis-physician assisted suicide is permissible when you’re not only not doing any harm but also have a valid authorization from the patient. The first part of Beauchamp’s thesis deals with the distinction between letting die and killing. Opposers of Beauchamp’s thesis state that voluntary passive euthanasia (DNR) is permissible because you are letting the patient die, whereas voluntary active euthanasia (lethal dose) is killing the patient. Beauchamp thinks there is a problem with the definition of letting die and killing and that we need to make a clear distinction between them. Beauchamp presents a few ways we might be able to make that distinction. They are as follows: * Intentions-an act is a killing if and only if it is an intended death, you can foresee the consequences of your actions. Beauchamp presents a challenge to this. A DNR can be seen as an intended killing because the health care practitioner can foresee the consequences, and it could be interpreted as killing the patient if they do not revive him. Another example could be a drunken driving case. When a person drives drunk they do not intend to kill someone, is that now not considered a killing. So, Beauchamp thinks this definition of killing is wrong. * Wrongfulness-an act is a killing if and only if it is a wrongful death. Beauchamp presents a challenge to this. A DNR is considered not wrongful, but a lethal dose is wrongful, but going against a patient’s wishes could be considered wrongful in the lethal dose case. What is considered wrongful, that is what we are trying to answer. So, our conclusion is in our question, it makes a circular argument. Beauchamp thinks this definition of killing is wrong. Causation-an act is a killing if and only if an agent as opposed to an underlying condition causes death. Beauchamp offers an example to show the problem with the causal theory. A policeman is hurt in the line of duty and placed on life support. A mafia guy who wants the policemen dead comes in and pulls the plug, which in turn causes the policeman to die. In this case, what the mafia guy did was not wrong because the policeman died of natural causes. It was the underl ying condition that caused the policeman’s death, not the mafia guy. Is this acceptable? One opponent to Beauchamp, Bernard Gert, says he wants to hold onto the causal theory. He thinks the mafia guy did wrong because he did not have a valid refusal of treatment from the policeman, such as a DNR. Beauchamp offers an answer to Gert showing how the causal theory is still a wrong definition of killing and letting die. It was not really the letting die of the policeman that was important to Gert; it was the refusal of valid authorization to pull the plug which made it a killing. So, if what Gert thinks is pivotal is what the patient wants, then why is a lethal dose request by the patient considered a killing and not a letting die. Beauchamp thinks the causal theory does not work. The conclusion to all these theories is that even if you can make a distinction between letting die and killing it still will not make a difference morally. The positive part of Beauchamp’s thesis states that physician assisted suicide is permissible when you’re not only not doing any harm but also have a valid authorization from the patient. Let’s establish what a valid authorization is. Beauchamp says a valid authorization is a request from someone with the authority to make a decision and it needs to be done freely and autonomous. I feel as though in the case of a lethal dose a little more needs to be added to the valid authorization. I think it should also include that the diagnosis given be terminal, the decision should not be made at the time of the diagnosis but after thinking everything over and it should be an enduring, voluntary, and competent informed decision, not co-erced in any way. The patient’s suffering should be unbearable, that there is no way of making that suffering bearable that is acceptable to the patient, and the physician’s judgments as to the diagnosis and prognosis were confirmed after consultation with another physician. Beauchamp’s position on the moral ethics of a lethal dose say that 1) we should abandon the letting die and killing distinction, 2) when it is wrong to cause death, what makes it wrong?. 3) The answer to that question is unjustified harm. For instance in the mafia example, the mafia guy did wrong because he did unjustified harm and did not act in the will of the patient. In conclusion, when voluntary active euthanasia would do no harm and there is a valid authorization, it is not wrong. There are, however, some well-known objections to human euthanasia. The oath a health care practitioner takes in one objection. I feel as though the oath needs to be changed to reflect modern society and medical practice. The world has changed since the oath was first written, as have ethical codes of conduct. Another objection is the slippery slope argument. People think that once the government steps in and starts killing its citizens, a dangerous precedent has been set. The concern is that a society that allows voluntary euthanasia will gradually change its attitudes to include non-voluntary euthanasia and involuntary euthanasia. Although this does present the need for more regulation and control of euthanasia, history has clearly demonstrated that any law or system can be abused. Also, what reason is there to believe that someone’s support for voluntary euthanasia be psychologically driven to practice non-voluntary euthanasia. Palliative care has been a favored alternative to euthanasia but thus still presents the issue of quality of life. When choosing palliative care over physician assisted suicide I think it would be important to ask whether life will be enjoyed and not simply tolerable. To get the best palliative care requires trial and error with some suffering in the process. Even high quality palliative care comes with side effects such as nausea, loss of awareness because of drowsiness, and so on. Where voluntary euthanasia is not tolerated, giving large doses of opioids to relieve pain in the knowledge that this will also end life is tolerable. In situations where palliative care can only guarantee a life that is tolerable, I think euthanasia is a legitimate option. Opponents to euthanasia state that everyone has the right to life, liberty, and security of person. Every person has these rights; however, if a person has the right to life, then they should have the right to die. Everyone should have the same control in choosing the way they die as they do in which they live. It is unfair to decide whether one should live with pain and agony, knowing full well that they have a terminal illness from which there is no known recovery. In the past, the doctor was a person who was a friend. Now a doctor is a stranger who combats diseases, but she is not always your friend. What will never change is their struggle against death. However, they’re job is not only to prevent death but to improve they’re patient’s quality of life. Many times there is nothing a doctor can do to prevent a patient from dying if the patient has a terminal disease; all she can do is wait for death to arrive. I think and believe that it is everyone’s right to determine the amount of suffering they can endure in their lifetime. It should not be up to fellow society members to decide what they must endure because of differing viewpoints on who is responsible for their life. I do not tell anyone how to live, so do not tell me how to die. Death could be a choice that you might not make, but a choice that someone else can have. Dena Furey Euthanasia March 8, 2013 Bibliography Page Beauchamp, Tom L. â€Å"Justifying Physician-Assisted Suicide†, Ethics in Practice. 3rd ed. Ed. Hugh LaFollette. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. , 2007. 72-79. Print. How to cite Morals of Euthanasia, Essay examples

Global Challenges in Governance Faced by Pakistan

Question: Discuss about theGlobal Challenges in Governance Faced by Pakistan. Answer: Introduction Pakistan is a republic situated in southern Asia. It is bordered to Afghanistan, Iran, China and India. The country has the sixth largest population around the world, with an estimate of about 192 Million. In the fiscal year of 2007 to 2008, it was estimated that 17.2% of Pakistanis live below poverty line(Iqbal, 2012). The figure has grown over the years. A significant population comes with big challenges for the government, for instance, being a developing country, basic human needs such as adequate health care facilities is an issue. Analyzing the current environment Pakistan faces is interesting. The current government g faces challenges in security, governance, and economy. Externals pressures, delicate native administrative processes and ethnic reticence are habitually disregarded. Most problems arise not due to limited options, but due to an aspiration to sustain the status quo. Many governance challenges faced by the government are due to constitutional dysfunctionality, as do from keeping important divisions that offer an engrained remedial machinery inactive. Policymaking Policymaking in Pakistan is captive to emotionalism and insight that the country is not able to sustain itself without outside aid, and that there is no feasible alternative to the countrys inclusive associations. The top main concern of any governing head of state in the country and any aspiring leader wishing to replace those in power, in the future, is to amass international acceptability. Public wellbeing is of no significance to them. Leaders, as well as those in waiting, have a spirit to gain from prevailing dysfunctions rather than fixing them(Hussain Hussain, 2013). The country faces tremendous pressure from foreign states and instead of counteracting those via policy changes, subsequent governments prefer their continuity to defend their personal indispensability regarding regime. Pakistans the economic growth is mired by monopolies and lack of an atmosphere for modest uniform playing ground. The potential in the nations energy area is captive to various influential interest groups, this frequently cross the genuine confines of pressure groups and turn like mafias. Institutions of Good Governance The establishments tasked with good governance are also not performing to the level of being satisfactory. The principle of power is that one cannot break the law and get away with it. In Pakistan, such acuity does not hold ground owing to division in law implementing agencies. Radical appointees look towards their hiring figure for they serve until its desire. This together with corrupt dealings and incompetence has made a majority of law enforcing institutions unable to act by the ideologies of impartiality and fair play. The upper judiciary is praised only when the verdicts made are advantageous and is demonized when the judgments made are not favoring those in power(Mahmood, 2015). The key objective is to be able to maintain the capability to infringe the law with liberty. Foreign Policy and Security The challenges Pakistan faces are monumental, views of the public on foreign policy is ill-informed, and the resulting debate is passionate and hollow. The tendency is to make overgeneralized norms headed for realizing peace with the neighboring countries. Economy The uncertain economy of Pakistan is the motivation behind the countries dependency on external federations and institutions(Sohail, 2013). Though the external debt and its repercussions are under focus, excessive domestic borrowing escapes due to attention. Over the years, price increases have drifted around 14%. The unemployment rate is high in the country, and the growth in population is incompatible with the growth rate of the GDP. The energy crisis is critical. Despite the countrys ability to generate electricity, power is still unavailable due to rounded debt issues. The Constitution and the Politics of Pakistan The Constitution has served the ruling regimes well, be they of noncombatant or military ancestries. To the citizens, the constitution has at all times been a revered file of state consensus. The countrys constitution exhibited flexibility to tackle major crunches until the point when the nation had stretched to the point of no return. For instance, military intercessions were constantly able to evade the constitution, when essential for long spells(Imam, 2014). The judiciary has always been on the frontline to support and facilitate military interventions. After the ending of any military rule in the country, the judiciary is always again on the forefront, withdrawing its backing for the army and dooming the usurper. The court has similarly created space for private misfortunes(Norris Bank., 2010). The law lords stood up against extra-judicial activities of President Pervez Musharraf towards the end of his days in office, by that time he had lost the support of the citizens. The actual test of the judiciary will come if another military intervention occurs in the future. Instead of respecting the countrys constitutional process, the powerful have always bent the laws. A mendments to the constitution have been easily engineered via coercion or bribes. This is done to benefit individuals and not the general public(jutt, 2014). Response Options to the Challenges Faced in Governance by Pakistan Key pointers of decent governance consist of accountability, transparency, efficient party-political dispensation, and awareness to public and partisan change, real involvement in the countrys policymaking, the rule of law and bold vision(Ismail, 2014). Regrettably, this does not happen in the case in Pakistan. The fundamental components of good governance can only be realized if there is a robust statutory framework in the country. This comprises well epitomized independent institutions, self-governing judiciary, active civil society and mass media with freedom of expression. However, these essential composites of the administration dont function effectively as a structure(Goran Hyden, 2003). Observing, investigating and judging functions of proper governance are subject to corrupt dealings and powerful influences. The civil activists in the country continue to push for accountability and at the same time creating awareness among the people hence playing a vital role in ensuring there is good governance in the country. The civil society has the main achievements which are monumental, however, after each accomplishment, the applicable arm of the government and non -state institutions fail to pick up from where the activists have gained progress. The authorities fail to consolidate the gains made by the civil society and transform these attainments into decent governance. The media in Pakistan have not been able to reach many people both domestically and internationally. Though the press has done a tremendous job in creating cognizance amongst the citizens. The growth of the media industry in the country is not in any systematic order; its growth is rather unforeseen and unregulated. The media industry has not been capable of generating conversant dialogue on good governance. The media lack the knowledge to act in synchronization with other arms of the government. There is a necessity for a vibrant watchdog to bring back the media from the current position of sensationalists to contributors in the state rulemaking and the process create an atmosphere of reverence for good governing procedures. The constitution should be reviewed to tackle the subject of integrally feeble governments. The voting process and the Political Parties Act should also be revised in a bid to ensure the government of the day is stable. The articles stated in the constitution should be fully implemented. This is the guiding code for viable transformation in the country(eremy Holland, 2012). The forming of energetic resident government plan which encourages grassroots and civic based self-governing establishments also need to be addressed by the government. The problem of governance should be looked through the prism of the law. To bring back good governance in the country, via ideologies of the Constitution, the people should be extra voiced through the mass media and also be enlightening the masses and initiation a drive to institute the sovereignty of the law. The social condition and foreign policy are entangled(Mudacumura, 2014). No applicable amendment in foreign policy is promising unless your house is in order. For real change in foreign policy to be realized, there is a necessity to have similar changes in the country, some of these changes may only be successful after adjustments in the foreign policy is done. Hence, there is a prerequisite for a common tactic uniting both local and international guiding principle reforms. Pakistan should root its external policy on peace and accord, as voiced by the establishing father of the nation. The economy of the state together with the energy sector necessitates real combined fundamental restructurings(Mohiuddin, 2007). There is a need to fix domestic borrowing by the administration. Conclusion Frantic situations require that you can think out of the box. While the tests the country experiences are extraordinary, the answers are within reach of the state capacity. There is an obligation to embrace a joined multi-sectoral therapeutic approach. Development in each acknowledged field will exude its constructive effects on other zones. While common sentiments are exceedingly tilting in the direction of supporting all-inclusive restructurings, the political goodwill is the essential tool to channelize the desire of the people. Once importance areas of governance, politics, and safety are dealt with, it would convert to a facilitating atmosphere for economic growth for Pakistan. References Clarke, A. M. a. M., 2013. Pakistan's Stability Paradox. NewYork: Routledge. eremy Holland, L. R. ,. P. S.-V. . H. S., 2012. Tackling the Governance of Socially Inclusive Service Delivery. Public Management Review, 14(2), pp. 181-196. Gerring, J., 2010. Governance in the Developing World. [Online] Available at: https://www.bu.edu/pardee/research/research-program-governance-in-the-developing-world/ [Accessed 27 October 2016]. Goran Hyden, J. C. a. K. M., 2003. Government and Governance in 16 Developing Countries. World Governance Survey Discussion Paper 6, pp. 4-5. Hussain, M. Hussain, A., 2013. The Nature of Governance in Pakistan. Pakistan Problem of Governance 4(1), p. 25. Imam, A., 2014. Democracy and Public Administration in Pakistan. volume 1 ed. New York: CRC Press. Iqbal, K., 2012. Pakistan Today: Challenges and Prospects. [Online] Available at: https://www.criterion-quarterly.com/pakistan-today-challenges-and-prospects/ [Accessed 27 October 2016]. Ismail, Z. H., 2014. Good governance. Some Issues of Governance in Pakistan, pp. 2-3. jutt, A., 2014. Major Problems Facing Pakistan Today. [Online] Available at: https://www.ilmkidunya.com/articles/major-problems-facing-pakistan-today-1600.aspx [Accessed 26 October 2016]. Mahmood, S., 2015. The Pakistan Governance Crisis. [Online] Available at: https://wsimag.com/economy-and-politics/18359-the-pakistan-governance-crisis [Accessed 27 October 2016]. Mohiuddin, Y. N., 2007. Pakistan : a global studies handbook. California: Santa Barbara. Mudacumura, G., 2014. Challenges to Democratic Governance in Developing Countries. Philadelphia: Springer International Publishing Switzerland. Norris, P. Bank., W., 2010. Public sentinel : news media governance reform. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Sohail, E., 2013. The Economic Challenges Facing Pakistans New Prime Minister. [Online] Available at: https://www.cipe.org/blog/2013/06/14/the-economic-challenges-facing-pakistans-new-president/#.WBHcB9J9600 [Accessed 27 October 2016].

Summary Ecology free essay sample

Overpopulation and Economic Development Pasadena, McIntyre and Williams (2013) illustrate in their textbook that the population has been increasing over time and it estimates that it will reach more than 10 billion in 2050. That is considered a factor that endangers the suitable land required to live, it means that the environment will be devastated. That growth seems like a threat which can be easily founded in entries like Nepal, Indonesia, Brazil and Malaysia.Those places are considered one of the most important sources of natural material to the earth. There the destruction of forests has commercial influence in the hardwood market, For example, Brazil has made the attempt in 2010 to reduces poverty and provides much-needed employment. However, the consequences were the burning of approximately 9 percent of the Amazon forest. Such devastation cause global harming because of the CA emissions, ND a new tendency to think about its possible solutions is emerging.One of the solutions is take control of the overpopulation, which has as disadvantage negative effects in nations economy. We will write a custom essay sample on Summary Ecology or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Another solution offered by experts is to create a sustainable environmentally social and economic development. This makes the situation complex because economic development is also a problem in many developing countries. Thus, developed countries are asking to developing countries stop to doing what hey themselves did for the economy growth desired.However, the developed world has skilled strategies, which can be the impulse that developing countries need to approach the change of unsustainable practices. Pasadena et al (2013) emphasize that education and technology development are the most important topic that developed countries can share.

Essay on Biology Notes

Essay on Biology Notes Essay on Biology Notes BIOLOGY EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION 1. Outline the impact on the evolution of plants and animals of: - changes in physical conditions in the environment - changes in chemical conditions in the environment - competition for resources Changes in the environment of living organisms can lead to the evolution of plant and animal species. These environmental changed in condition may be physical, such as temperature changes, or chemical, such as changes in water salinity. Change may also be triggered by competition, for example, competition for resources such as food and water or competition to reproduce. Changes in physical conditions in the environment include natural conditions, such as temperature and the availability of water. Since life first evolved on Earth it has seen many changes. Given that the environment at the time was so antagonistic to life it is a wonder that life evolved at all. The physical environment has changed frequently. Sea levels have risen and fallen. Oceans or dry land has, at various times, covered parts of Australia. Such drastic changes in the environment influence evolution. Fossil evidence indicates that much mass extinction have resulted from changed in the Earth’s physical environment, for example, at the beginning of Pangaea about 90% of marine mammals became extinct. Over a period of 10 million years, dinosaurs along with other organisms became extinct. One theory as to why this occurred is that a meteorite struck the Earth producing a dust cloud that may first have killed many of the plants and animals that dinosaurs ate, causing them to st arve and die. Other scientists argue that climate change could have occurred from continental drift, changing patterns in oceanic circulation, or possibly volcanos. Whatever the cause, the environmental change favoured the organisms that survived. The story of life on Earth us change, extinction and diversification. Environmental change can favour certain species. The Australia landmass has become drier over time and this has lead to changes in the species of kangaroos that are present today. Approximately 25 million years ago, Australia was considerably wetter than today with large areas of rainforest. During this time, kangaroos were small and omnivorous, with unspecialised teeth, eating a variety of foods from the forest floor. Food was nutritious and abundant; there was no need for specialised grinding teeth. As Australia became more arid and grass became the dominant vegetation in some areas, environmental selective pressure resulted in larger kangaroos favouring teeth suitable for grass. These teeth, high-crested molars, efficiently grind low-nutrition grass into a more easily digestible paste. Slicing pre-molars are of little use and so became much reduced from the ancestral kangaroos. Changes in chemical conditions in the environment have also affected evolution. When life first evolved, it developed in an environment free from oxygen. These primitive organisms metabolised simple organic molecules in shallow seas. A product of this metabolism was carbon dioxide. Over millions of years the carbon dioxide accumulated in the environment and at some stage organisms capable of using CO2 in photosynthesis evolved and multiplied. They produced oxygen as a product of their metabolism, creating a chemical environment, which simple animals could exploit. These animals obtained energy from aerobic respiration. The evolution of organisms, as a consequence of chemicals in the environment, is not just ancient history by affects us now. Humans change the environment rapidly. Change and the capacity of populations of organisms to evolve in response to chemicals is sometimes a frustration to humans. Chemicals that can affect the evolution of species include salts and elements, suc h as iron. For example, many parts of Australia have soils that have a high salinity. There is a range of salt tolerant plants that have evolved to inhabit those areas.

Mothers Day Celebrations Around the World

Mothers Day Celebrations Around the World Although the idea of honoring mothers on a special day was known as far back as ancient Greece, today Mothers Day is celebrated in many countries, in many different ways, and on different dates. Where Did Mothers Day Originate? The credit for the American Mothers Day observance goes to three women. In 1872 Julia Ward Howe (1819-1910), who also wrote the lyrics for The Battle Hymn of the Republic, proposed a Mothers Day observance dedicated to peace in the years following the Civil War. Such annual observances were held in Boston in the late 1800s. In 1907 Anna Marie Jarvis (1864-1948), a Philadelphia teacher originally from Grafton, West Virginia, began her own efforts to establish a national Mothers Day. She also wished to honor her own mother, Anna Reeves Jarvis (1832-1905), who had first promoted the Mothers Work Days in 1858 as a way to improve the sanitary conditions in her town. She later worked to relieve suffering during and after the Civil War. With the support of churches, business people, and politicians, Mothers Day came to be observed on the second Sunday in May in most U.S. states within several years of Ann Jarvis campaign. The national Mothers Day holiday became official on May 8, 1914, when President Woodrow Wilson signed a joint resolution, but it was more of a patriotic day on which flags were flown in honor of mom. Ironically, Anna Jarvis, who later tried in vain to combat the increasing commercialization of the holiday, never became a mother herself. Mothers Day in Europe Englands Mothers Day observance goes back to the 13th century when Mothering Sunday was observed on the fourth Sunday of Lent (because it was originally for Mary, mother of Christ). Later, in the 17th century, servants were given a free day on Mothering Sunday to return home and visit their mothers, often bringing along a sweet treat known as the mothering cake that was to be kept until Easter. In the UK, Mothering Sunday is still observed during Lent, in March or early April. In Austria, Germany, and Switzerland Muttertag is observed on the second Sunday in May, just as in the U.S., Australia, Brazil, Italy, Japan, and many other countries. During the First World War, Switzerland was one the first European countries to introduce Mothers Day (in 1917). Germanys first Muttertag observance took place in 1922, Austrias in 1926 (or 1924, depending on the source). Muttertag was first declared an official German holiday in 1933 (the second Sunday in May) and took on a special significance as part of the Nazi motherhood cult under the Hitler regime. There was even a medal- das Mutterkreuz- in bronze, silver, and gold (eight or more Kinder!), awarded to mothers who produced children for the Vaterland. (The medal had the popular nickname of Karnickelorden, the Order of the Rabbit.) After World War II the German holiday became a more unofficial one that took on the cards-and-flowers elements of the U.S. Mothers Day. In Germany, if Mothers Day happens to fall on Pfin gstsonntag (Pentecost), the holiday is moved to the first Sunday in May. Mothers Day in Latin America International Mothers Day is observed on May 11. In Mexico and much of Latin America Mothers Day is on May 10. In France and Sweden Mothers Day falls on the last Sunday in May. Spring in Argentina comes in October, which may explain why their Mothers Day observance is on the second Sunday in October rather than May. In Spain and Portugal Mothers Day is Dec. 8 and is more of a religious holiday than most Mothers Day celebrations around the world, although the English Mothering Sunday actually began under Henry III in the 1200s as a celebration of the Mother Church. German poet and philosopher, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe: Von Vater hab ich die Statur, des Lebens ernstes FÃ ¼hren, von MÃ ¼tterchen die Frohnatur und Lust zu fabulieren.

Gun Control community and police safety vs right to bear arms Research Paper

Gun Control community and police safety vs right to bear arms - Research Paper Example This research will begin with the statement that judging by the current statistics, the United States has the highest level of gun-related violence, which is not only greater than everywhere in Western Europe, but around the World. Police officers receive reports of mass shootings virtually every day, with the latest one being the San Bernardino shooting in California, which left 14 people dead and 21 wounded. According to Shootingtracker.com, the San Bernardino shooting is undeniably the deadliest since the Sandy Hook Elementary School Shooting, which took place in December 2012, and left 20 children and 6 adults dead. The website, which defines a mass shooting as an incident where four or more people are shot at the same time, equally reports that the United States has witnessed 1052 mass shootings over a span of 1066 days. The situation in the United States is a sharp contrast to that in Scotland for example, which has a population of 5.3 million people but has made great strides in managing gun-related violence. The state of affairs in Scotland is said to have changed after the Dunblane Primary School shooting in March 1996, which left 16 children and 1 teacher dead. The public outcry that resulted from the 1996 incident prompted the British government to act with speed, and ban the private ownership of automatic weapons and handguns within their mainland. The effected changes similarly gave the authorities more control over the licensing of weapons.

Iran and Italy - macro economics assignment Essay

Iran and Italy - macro economics assignment - Essay Example ay before it was hit by recession Italy was already experiencing poor economic performance of an average real GDP growth of only 1% per annum (Morsy and Sgherri, 2010, p.3). This was the period between 2001 and 2007. This growth rate was almost half the euro area growth rate. After the onset of recession in 2008, Italy faced a 7% decline in the GDP. In the first quarter of 2010 the economy started to recover from the poor performance. The recovery was halted in 2011 when the country reentered recession for the second time. The GDP fell by 0.2 % by the second quarter of 201l. By the end of the last quarter the GDP had declined further by 7%. This condition persisted in the first quarter of 2012 and then there was a little improvement although the GDP still remained negative. After the long contraction of the economic performance the GDP started improving in 2014 but it was still negative. The GDP is expected to become positive in the current year. Although a positive GDP is being anticipated the level expected will still below the euro average GDP. Iran on the other hand started facing a contraction in its business cycle in 2011. At the beginning of 2011, the country was facing a constant GDP growth rate of around 6% to 8% per annum. This increasing GDP was halted in mid 2011 when the GDP faced a significant drop. The GDP growth rate fell below 5% and the downward trend continued until July 2012. At this time the GDP had fallen greatly and was on the negative side. The growth rate at mid- year 2012 was estimated to be -10%. This was the lowest level achieved during the period. After the 2012 drop in GDP it started increasing at a constant rate until early 2013 a downward movement. The drop was short term and by mid 2013 the GDP growth rate had started rising again. By mid-year 2014 the GDP growth rate was positive again at a level of around 5%. One of the main reasons for the downward economic growth in Italy was the high public debt. The shrinking GDP in the

How Barbie Dolls Influence Girls Essay Example for Free

How Barbie Dolls Influence Girls Essay How we ever wonder why in toys stores, they separate the girl’s toys from the boys? Or why they have certain kind of toys for girls and boys?. We don’t think about those things. However, we see that dolls are for the girls because how we grew up. Also what society establishes show us, that girls are suppose to play with dolls because when they grow up, they would have to become mothers or housewife, be delicates and more feminine. Therefore this type of mentality was created in girls since they were little and because this is socially acceptable. Boys toys like trucks, cars and action figures, are not consider appropriate for girls because they are not consider to be feminine. According to society those types of toys are only for boys because this would teach them to be more manliness and increase their masculinity. This boys would grow up to be the strong sex and they would be the support of their family while women would take care of the babies and the house. Girls are brainwash with the toys they use, like when girls play with baby dolls, when they carry around their doll, wraps them in a blanket and take them for a nap they are learning true responsibility. However, they are taught to become mothers to early in life. They also play with popular Barbie doll, which also creates a woman stereotype that looks very unreal. These dolls represent the perfect model that is professional and has the perfect life. As a result girls visualize this doll as the type of model to follow, visualizing and creating in their young minds a type of life that doesn’t exist. Like having the perfect outfit, the perfect car or the handsome boyfriend that could cheat on them or treat them bad and that regardless of this situation it wouldn’t affect them. â€Å"Since her creation in 1959, Barbie has been a popular toy for young girls in the U. S. In 1998, on average, girls in the U. S. owned eight of these dolls and approximately two were purchased every second somewhere in the world†. By Elise Abramson). Consequently when girls play with Barbie dolls, their ways to view life is different. They create a new world where they become perfect grown ups, which is a major influence in the way they behave and think. Barbie is not a good role model for girls because this doll sends a wrong message to them about their roles in society. Barbie focus more on shopping and always being perfect with her unrealistic body. Also some of these dolls come showing some career like veterinarians, octors but always focusing on being cute and only working with cute things. Therefore, girls think about it as the way things are suppose to be and they try to act what they see or imagine, creating different scenes in their heads that projects the wonderful life that is perpetuate by this doll. In short, what we have to consider too, is that those negatives images impose by this doll to girls is also reinforce by society, which also creates a certain stereotype of women and they way she should be and look.

Service Quality in the Tourism and Hospitality Industry Essay example -

There are so many research studies that have been conducted relating to service quality and customer satisfaction as this topic has been the centre of attraction in the service industries. Both these words play an important role in determining the competitiveness and the survival of an organisation in the tourism or the hospitality industry. The following chapter commences with a brief look at the tourism industry, followed by the definition and explanation of service quality. This chapter also tries to provide the link between customer perceptions, expectations and satisfaction. Gaps evolving between the management of an organisation and the perceptions of the customers are evaluated in detail. The latter part of the chapter focuses on SERVQUAL which is used as a tool for measuring service quality. Five basic dimensions of service quality have been evaluated in detail from the perspective of different authors which is followed by the criticism of SERVQUAL. The determinants of servic e quality have been identified in terms of airline industry and the relation between delivery of service quality and customer satisfaction has been highlighted at the end. Furthermore, this paper will try to demonstrate how an airline could manage its service quality by using the ‘SERVQUAL’ as a diagnostic tool to measure the expectations of number of different passengers. The Tourism Industry Tourism has become a vital tool for major revenue in many countries and regarded as an important catalyst in improving the global economy. Air travel has made the world smaller and accessible in many ways. Many state of the art airlines and airports across the world have catered to the ever growing demands of the customers who wish to travel by air. Those who... ....59-74. Supernanent, C. and Churchill, N. G., (1982) An investigation into the determinants of customer satisfaction. Journal of marketing research, 19 (4), p.491-504. Surveymonkey (2012) Introduction. [online] Available at: http://www.surveymonkey.com/ [Accessed: 24th February 2012]. Veal,A.J. 2006. Research methods for Leisure and Tourism: A practical guide. Third edition. Pearson Publication, London. Walle, A. (1997) Quantitative versus Qualitative Tourism Research. Annals of Tourism Research, 24 (3), p.524-536. Wong, K. and Musa, G. (2011) Branding satisfaction in the airline industry: A comparative study of Malaysia Airlines and Air Asia. African Journal of Business Management, 5 (8), p.3410-3423. 123helpme (2011) Components of customer services. [online] Available at: https://www.123helpme.com/view.asp?id=148474 [Accessed: 12th february 2012].

Environmental & Health Impacts of Mining on Surrounding Communities

Background of the Study INTRODUCTION To achieve rapid economic development, many countries resort to various activities to use and take advantage of natural resources. One of such activities is mining. Thus, mining became an important activity which has potential for the contribution of development of areas enriched with resources. Having visited Surigao Del Norte once a month starting February until August of this year, I was deeply frustrated by the negative impact of mining in the province. I saw how communities affected by mining.I heard how indigenous people had been shifted off their lands to make way for mining and how their consultation rights had been ignored. I saw polluted rivers, destroyed mangrove forests, damaged coral and ruined agriculture. I concluded that Surigao del Norte is in danger of losing much of its rich biodiversity and damaging the lives of unique indigenous cultures. Surigao Del Norte is a province of the Philippines located in Caraga Region in Mindanao. It has a population of almost 450,000 lines between the different groups which cannot be accurately distinguished.It has an area of 2,740 square kilometers. It embraces within its domain 27 municipalities and a component city. Mangrove is the major theme in the coastal areas of the province. It has also many caves and tunnels in its islands. The ironwood forests of the province are one of the watersheds most productive resources. By its nature, it is growing and adapted to a mineralized soil. So it should be carefully managed for sustained productivity. Its biggest islands are usually mountainous and rich in minerals. Its islands have one of the world's largest deposit of nickel and chromite.The smaller ones either rest on sand and gravel or have a limestone base bonded by boulders ( large rounded mass of rock lying on the surface of the ground or embedded in the soil ), reefs, and sandbars. There are also springs, lagoons, caves, waterfalls, mangroves, marshes and whirlpools which made the province more appealing to all nature lovers. Surigao is home to the â€Å"Mamanwa† ethnic tribe. The Department of Labor and Employment – Caraga Region released an official list of mining companies in Caraga for 2012 Inspection.There are 35 mining companies declared in the list that continuously operate in the whole region. And there are other non registered mining companies that are not included in the list that are pursuing mining operations. Mining activities have lots of environmental and health impacts. This has derived from the methods of operation by the mining companies, of course it has effects on the natural environment as well as the people in the surrounding communities. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMSurigao del Norte has a variety of mineral resources and corrispondingly there's large-scale mining companies invested more and expanded their operations in the province. Nickel production in the province is dominated by these large mining companies that ar e operating in different communities in Surigao del Norte. The three giant and controversial mining companies located in the province are Tag-anito High Pressure Acid Leaching (THPAL-Sumitomo), Tag-anito Mining Corporation (TMC), and the Platinum Gold Metal Corporation (PGMC).The giant Tag-anito Mining Corporation (TMC) is one of three mining companies of the Nickel Asia Corporation in Surigao del Norte owned by Manny Zamora, located at Brgy. Taganito,Claver. The TMC has ravaged the area for many years and has immensely destroyed the environment of the province. It has ruined both fresh water and marine sources, devastated mountains, violated the rights of the indigenous people and workers. The Platinum Gold Metal Corporation (PGMC) is mining nickel ore for foreign buyers with a permit to operate under the name of Mr. Atayde, but is currently operated by one Mrs.Tata Dasmarinas Marahomsar. Millions of tons of nickel ore have already been plundered and shipped to imperialist countrie s, which has resulted in the total effacement of forest and mountains within its concession, as well as the destruction of rivers and seas. Almost all workers in this company are under contract-basis. This gigantic Tag-anito High Pressure Acid Leaching Plant (THPAL), which processes nickel, is principally owned by the Japanese imperialist Sumitomo Mining Corporation, which is in partnership or connaivance with the Nickel Asia Corporation owned by Manny Zamora.Its operation uses massive quantities of sulfuric acid that is highly toxic to both humans and environment. It is also a coal-fired plant that exhausts out tons upon tons of highly toxic fumes into the atmosphere. The said plant also only processes millions of tons of low-grade nickel ore coming from different mines from the four provinces of Caraga, as they prefer to export high grade nickel ore to foreign countries. At the rate they are currently mining both low and high grade nickel ore, in the net few decades, the environme nt in the province will be completely destroyed.The method of extraction that is mostly used by these mining companies is open-pit. It is a kind of surface mining that the mining companies choose to get rocks and minerals out of the ground because it is easiest and cheapest way. The top of the layers of the land are removed. After that, layer after layer is taken away until the rock or mineral is visible. This is taken out and processed. Taking away layer after layer of land creates a gigantic, open hole or pit that keeps getting deeper and deeper until there is nothing left to bring out.Heavy machines are used for this purpose. The use of heavy machines and chemicals underground do not only cause instability within the earth crust but also underground water which serves as source of water to various waterbodies in the area are affected by infiltration of toxic materials. Also, explosives like dynamites are used to blast the large rocks out of the earth. The loud noise and the vibra tions from the blasts have affected people within the surrounding communities. There is also spillage of poisonous chemicals used in the process in drainage to nearby streams.This causes aquatic life loss, as these chemicals are highly toxic. It also seeps down into the soil causing plant roots to die. The combination of inadequate protection measures and natural hazards can be and has been calamitous. The province's record of mining incidents is evident of this. Last January 2011, Surigao del Norte was under state of calamity as several towns were hit by floodwaters . Numerous houses were totally and partially damaged, and the floods killed number of people. Families from barangays provincewide were affected.Last October 2011 more than 200 heavily armed New People's Army rebels attacked three mining companies in Surigao del Norte, burning heay equipment, disarming guards and briefly holding several people in their attack. This conflict between the rebels and the mining companies ha d made the local people alarmed and troubled. These incidents are proof how mining brought distruction on the livelihoods, health and even the human rights of indigenous people and other local communities of Surigao del Norte.These environmental, health, and social effects of mining activities have been attracting attention, thus, need to be addressed. Although, the mining company is believed to have made steps to improve health conditions of residents within the surrounding communities, however, the extent to which these efforts are reducing the negative environmental and health impacts is yet to be established. For instance, the three mentioned large mining companies in the province said that their top priority is local employment in the communities they operate.Also they claim that they are engaged in environmentally responsible practices in their mining operations, complied with local and national guidelines and programs on the preservation and restoration of the environment. Bu t it is clear in the incidents happened in the province that their missions/vissions to care for the environment and community are not met. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY In line with the problems outlined above, the aim of this research is to answer the following concerns: a. What are the effects of the method(s) used in mining on the environment? b. What are the health effects of mining on the people living in Surigao del Norte? . What measures have been put by the government and other organizations to reduce the negative effects (environmental & health) of mining activities on the people of Surigao del Norte? Accordingly, the main objective of the study was to ascertain the environmental and health impacts of Surigao del Norte on the surrounding communities. The specific objectives were to: 1. 3. 1 Determine the methods of mining operations and their effects on the environment and health of the people. 1. 3. 2 Determine and examine the measures of the mentioned mining companies (TMC, PD MC,THPAL) in ensuring the safety of residents in the surrounding communities. . 3. 3 Assess the role of the Chamber of Mines Caraga Region, inc. , Department of Environmental and Natural Resources (DENR), Local Government Units (LGU), and Non government organizations (NGO's). 1. 4 HYPOTHESES 1. 4. 1 Appreciation of mining effects on the environment by residents is related to their number of years of stay in the communities. 1. 4. 2 Knowledge of mining effects on health is positively related to years of schooling (education). 1. 4. 3 The infections/diseases among residents are related to mining activities. 1. 6 RESEARCH METHODOLOGYThe data collected included background data on respondents, awareness, perception and effects of mining within the surrounding communities. Also data on the methods of the mentioned mining companies were collected, as well as data on the effects of their operations. Also data interventional measures of the organizations involved were collected. 1. 7 Sources of Data and Methods of Data Collection Data for this study were from primary and secondary sources. Primary data included administering of questionnaires in the field to residents of surrounding communities of the mining companies and some mine workers.There were also interviews with staff and officials of the mentioned mining companies (TMC,PDMC,THPAL) as well as officials of government agencies such as LGU and DENR for relevant information. Moreover, there were field observations to the mine sites and other areas to determine the effects of mining operations on the environment. Secondary data were gathered from books, relevant articles from journals and reports of researches conducted on the effects of mining operations on the surrounding communities. There were data also obtained from library of Far Eastern University – Makati, internet and other sources. SAMPLING DESIGN 5 people were randomly selected for the execution of a detailed questionnaire. The justification of th e sample size lies in the fact that the time and resources available were not enough to cover the entire area with its whole population. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Provision of Health Facilities Land Degradation The conceptual framework shows the impact of mining on the environment and the health of people. Mining method used by mining companies in surigao is open-pit ( surface mining). The method used have environmental and health impacts.Opininon of Respondents on Effects of Mining on the Environment Years of Staying in town Do Methods affect the environment? Yes No Total 1-4 years 3 3 5-8 years 2 2 9-12 years 13-16 years 2 2 17-20 years 3 3 21-24 years 2 2 25-28 years 5 5 29-32 years 1 1 33-36 years 1 1 37-40 years 6 6 41+ years Total 25 25 It is evident from the table that those who have stayed longer period within the mining area gave a large percent attestation that mining methods affect the environment. The analysis confirms that the years of staying in town affect respondent's kno wledge on mining effects on the environment.Therefore , the first hypothesis is validated. Table 2. Respondents' responses to environmental effects of mining on the locality Effects of Mining Frequency Percentage Land Degradation 17 32. 08 Air Pollution 12 22. 64 Water Pollution 15 28. 3 Noise Pollution 9 16. 98 Total 53 100 NB: The total frequency is exceeding 25 because there were lot of respondents noted more than one form of effect. The highest percentage of the respondents noted that contributes environmental problem is land degradation followed by water pollution , air pollution , then noise pollution.The pollution are associated with mining activities in their respective communities. Table 3. Respondents' views on relationship between mining and health by education Years of education Are diseases related to mining? Yes No Total None (illiterate) 3 3 6 7-9 yrs ( basic) 4 4 10-15yrs ( secondary) 4 3 7 16-18 yrs ( tertiary) 8 8 Total 19 6 25 Approximately 76% of the respondents asserted that the diseases endemic in their communities were as a result of the mining activities , while 24% disproving this claim.The analysis also shows that the years of schooling of respondents (education) affected the views of respondents on relationship of diseases endemic in the area of mining activities. For those with higher years of schooling (10-18 yrs. ) asserted that mining activities had caused diseases endemic in the area. The second hypothesis that knowledge of mining effects on health is positively related to education levels of respondents is therefore validated. Table 4. Diseases frequently contracted by respondents Diseases Frequency Percentage Malaria 2 8 Diarrhea 11 44 Skin Diseases 4 16 Fever 5 20 Cough and colds 3 12 Total 5 100 Most of the respondents complained of incidence of diarrhea from mining activities. Then some noted infections of fever, skin diseases, cough and colds ,then malaria. Health effects associated with the mining activities are noteworth y. The research revealed that there is high prevalent rate of diseases such as diarrhea and other infections among residents which were direct and indirect effects of mining activities. Summary of Research and Findings The research examined the mining methods of the three mining companies (TMC,PGMC, THPAL) and their environmental and health effects on the surrounding communities.Moreover, measures being put in place by the mining companies to moderate the environmental, health and other socio-economic effects of their activities on the people of Surigao del Norte. Also the roles of some public sector mining industry support organizations were also examined. The three big mining companies that are currently operating in the province of Surigao del Norte, on their part, have realized the effects of their activities on the people living in the communities and have sought to institute measures to reduce and moderate the environmental, health, and other effects on the people.Measures tha t have been undertaken which include reforestation, resettlement and compensation to affected communities, and providing alternative sources of drinking water to communities whose water resources have been contaminated with toxic chemicals. On health, the mining companies have built clinics and health posts within the communities for the benefit of both workers and people within the communities.With the view to ensuring better conditions for residents within the mining area, some public sector mining industry support organizations such as Chamber of Mines of Caraga Region, also government agencies like Department of Environmental and Natural Resources (DENR) and Local Government Units contributed their contributed efforts of restoration. The Department of Environmental and Natural Resources whose primary duty is to ensure that mining companies undertake their operations in conformity with the laws, is responsible for the monitoring of mining activities from time to time.The Local Go vernment Units, as a government agency responsible for taxing and imposing charges for mining companies that are operating in communities of the province , ensures that the just amounts were collected from these mining companies. Also LGU implemented and supervised social support programmes in mining areas. The Chamber of Mines in Caraga Region (CNC), the peak mineral industry association not only in Surigao del Norte but in the whole Caraga Region, represents the collective interest of companies involved in mineral exploration, production, and processing in the province.The chamber has not only functioned to promote and protect the interest and image of the mining industry but has also committed itself to addressing mining related environmental and socio-economic problems. This is evident in the Chamber's commitment in initiating alternative livelihood programmes and executing its corporate social responsibility in host communities of mining activities. CNC initiated inland rehabil itation and reforestation in the Surigao del Norte province. It initiated and committed about 5 hectares of mined-portion for rehabilitation and reforestation.The activity involved re-contouring of the area, backfilling of the topsoil, preparation of site, and planting of endemic and exotic tree species. Despite of the efforts by these organizations in ensuring that mining activities are carried out on sustainable basis without serious problems to the environment and the host communities, the public is yet to feel the impact of their activities. A critical assessment of their activities therefore shows that there is more to be achieved than what has been accomplished so far as far as environmental and health problems in the mining industry are concerned.Conclusion In as much as we acknowledge the economic benefits of mining activities in Surigao del Norte, there is the need also to recognize the environmental and health hazards that come with it in order to find ways of dealing with them. It must be recommended that further researches are conducted into the assessment of intervention measures adopted andimplemented by mining companies and stakeholder organizations in reducing and moderating the economic, social,environmental and health impacts of mining activities on the people in the surrounding communities.There should be funding from the government and other institutions for researches conducted, with a move to educate the general public on the need to provide information needed for researches since they will ultimately lead to the development of the country. There is the need for an effective collaboration and coordination among governmental agencies and others so that they can perform their roles effectively in dealing with the environmental and health problems associated with mining activities within the affected communities.

Rammed Earth

RAMMED EARTH Fionnadh McGonigle 0818555 Contents †¢ History (page 2) †¢ The Use of Rammed Earth within the UK (pages 3 & 4) †¢ Rammed Earth as a Sustainable material, Thermal and Insulation properties (pages 5 & 6 ) †¢ Weather Protection (page 7) †¢ Construction week o Aims (page 8) o Risk Assessment (page 9,10 &11) o Prototype I (pages 12,13 & 14) o Prototype II (page 15) o Earth preparation (pages 15 &16) o Prototype III (pages 17, & 18) o Final Wall (pages 19, 20 & 21) o Revised Risk assessment (page 22) Conclusion (pages 23, 24 & 25) †¢ Bibliography (page 26) Rammed Earth Historical Use The use of earth itself in construction dates back thousands of years, the first recorded city – Jericho was built of earth. The first recorded use of rammed earth was by the Babylonians in 5000BC. Parts of the western portion of the Great Wall of China 300BC are built of rammed earth. Almost every European country has a history of rammed earth construction but is usually a material associated with arid areas. 780-1850 Rammed earth experienced popularity in the USA until mass production of fire bricks and sawed lumber became readily available. These materials were now favoured for being more elegant and modern than using rammed earth – or â€Å"dirt†. However during World War I and the Great depression, supply shortages prompted a return to Rammed Earth. Rammed Earth remained fairly unpopular then until the 1970’s when it began to be rejuvenated by the environmentally conscious.Despite Rammed Earths extensive use throughout history, its use is still not so popular within the UK. Reason for this is largely due to architects/ Builders not knowing enough about the material and sticking to the familiar concrete, timber and brick ways that they know, rammed earth can often also be perceived as having cruder finishing and not in keeping with the clean-sharp lined finished which are so often preferred in today’s archi tecture- Though with the appropriate shuttering clean finishes can be achieved.Building with rammed earth is considered to carry greater risk and uncertainty, the material is yes, more suited to arid climates, but even in arid climates modern method of construction using rammed earth are being continually tried and tested e. g. in Australia. Rammed earth is a perfectly viable and good material to be used within the UK – there is a need to get past the reluctance to use and experiment with it more here – the climate presents a challenge which can be won in innovative ways. [pic] The Use of Rammed Earth within the UKThings which prohibit the wider use of Rammed earth within the UK †¢ The longer than average period needed for construction. †¢ The formwork and Labour costs. †¢ The climates high humidity climate – Moderate external temperatures. †¢ Concerns which are had about the careful detailing which can be required. †¢ Poor thermal resis tance – The need for external walls to require additional insulation. †¢ Not all soil types are appropriate importation of soil for a rammed earth construction will significantly detract from its environmental credentials. The Quality control required for rammed earth constructions is quite high. †¢ Moisture movement can be caused by high clay content. †¢ The UK has few modern examples of rammed earth buildings – relatively untested in this climate – comparative to other countries. †¢ There are currently no UK codes of practice on rammed earth construction. †¢ Adding cement stabilisation can compromise its attributes as a sustainable material. †¢ It can be difficult to find insurance for rammed earth construction. It needs to be kept dry during construction which can result in the need for temporary roof structures. After construction this presents the needs for overhangs or on exposed sights structures to protect from prevailing el ements- can compromise aesthetics. †¢ People hungry construction. †¢ Some more high profile examples of rammed earth building in the UK have experienced problems e. g. the Eden project- over hangs were not big enough and the splash back of rainwater has eroded some of the facade. Reasons why rammed earth would be chosen over other materials It distinct appearance. †¢ Natural and readily available. †¢ It has a low embodied energy. †¢ Rammed earth is hygroscopic – due to high moisture mass – it will regulate humidity. †¢ Post demolition – unstabilised earth is reusable. †¢ Supports sustainable practices by using local soils. †¢ High Thermal mass – though the extent of which has yet to be quantified. †¢ Airtight construction is achievable. †¢ It can be considered a traditional form of construction. †¢ Modern methods have and continue to be widely tried and tested overseas. An integrity of building is exp ressed which is often lacking nowadays. †¢ Expression of cultural conditions. †¢ Acoustic properties- its dry density (pd) is typically 2,100 kg/m3 therefore the weighted sound reduction index (Rw) would be 58. 3dB [1] and thus more than satisfies Building regulations (2000), Doc E Resistance to the Passage of Sound. Other considerations when Using rammed earth Rammed earth is hygroscopic, therefore external cladding systems must be vapour permeable to allow for evaporation.Important for unstabilised walls and less so for stabilised walls where stabilising agents will impair breathing, still it is better to consider vapour permeable solutions for both instances to reduce chances of condensation build up on the inside face of insulation. Water resistance the need to keep the structure dry post construction is done in various ways, large overhangs, plinths upon which the wall is constructed, rendering or cladding to the facade- these options will affect the structures sustai nability, look and thermal mass.A comparison between the calculated U-values for both ‘conventional' masonry and Stabilised rammed Earth wall designs [pic][2] Rammed earth as a sustainable material CO2 Emissions are greatly reduced with the use of rammed earth, as opposed to cement which due to the need for burning limestone produces CO2 contributing about 10% of the global CO2 emissions. Rammed earth taking soil from the site not using a stabiliser is the most sustainable method; however the addition of a cement stabiliser is common practice and considered to reduce considerably the risk and uncertainty, cement is used making up 6-7% of the mix.The embodied energy is low- its inherent recyclability and reduction of CO2 during the structures lifetime, high thermal mass and low operating costs. If the clay can be sourced from site, and is suitable then it eliminates all transportations cost. If the clay is not so suitable, then a stabiliser of cement can be added. If the soil o n site is not at all suited for a rammed earth construction then clay can be transported to site- however both of these options will compromise the environmental integrity of the building, the latter of which doing so quite considerably.Also due to the need for rammed earth to be kept dry at all times during construction there can be a need for temporary roof structures to keep the rain away, this will therefore impact its sustainability. Depending also on what type of shuttering is used can lead to waste, for e. g. timber shutter although can be reused, its reuse is limited as it will become saturated from the moisture in the clay. Thermal Performances, Rammed earth has a high thermal mass – walls will naturally regulate both the internal temperature spaces, and can also regulate the temperatures of external spaces such as courtyards.Energy required to heat and cool a building can be greatly reduced if rammed earth is designed into the heating system, however the UK requires the addition of either internal or external insulation, this aside from affecting the aesthetic of either facade it is fixed to, will compromise the thermal mass of the adjacent space. Structural Performance, whilst the structural strength and stiffness is compromised with increased waster content, if designed correctly and waterproofing measure taken then rammed earth is perfectly capable of acting as a load bearing structure.Rammed earth which is imported in not only contribute to the cost and environmental issue of transportation, it also leaves a scar on the landscape as it is being taken from elsewhere, e. g. a quarry, even if this is later turned into some sort of nature reserve it is still leaving a permanent change to this landscape. Insulation – in the UK there are few examples of rammed earth combining insulation, most contemporary walls are unclad, but there is an increased need for insulation to be used in conjunction with the thermal mass of the walls. |Advanta ges |disadvantages | |External Insulation |Walls protected from weathering |Loss of characteristic appearance | | |Exposed thermal mass internally |Loss of thermal mass externally- which is | | | |sometimes used to regulate temperatures of | | | |spaces such as courtyards | | | | | |Internal Insulation |External appearance is maintained |Loss of available thermal mass. | | | |Internal appearance compromised | [pic][3][pic][4] Weather protection †¢ Weather needs to be drained away from walls †¢ Construction upon raised footings †¢ Avoidance of sites vulnerable to flooding †¢ Protecting wall from rain using adjoining elements e. g. roof overhangs †¢ Allow evaporation of moisture from walls †¢ Onsite which are considerably exposed there is a need to consider rain screen cladding or render. Construction Week AimsThe aim of the work we did within the workshop was to question the building processes as a whole, by means of both small and large scale prototypes , to push the presumed limitations of a material and its formwork, to not just accept, that rules have been predetermined, but to push for innovation. As we studied, the idea of the â€Å"builders yard† allows for just this, meaning a material can be taken and experimented with, in a specific location which possesses the same limiting factors as the actual site e. g. Climate and resources, and test particular means of creating the desired construction before doing so, it is a hub for construction in the area- encouraging risk by means of experimentation rather than out casting it.The advantages of such an idea are that when a material can be experimented with it allows for greater understanding and judgment of its limitation- rather than acceptance of existing limitations, and therefore systems of constructing and spatial relationships can be explored. The community have a personal knowledge of the neighbourhood its character and needs, they are given the power to modify and contribute to it, their personal attachment means, as workmen they have a continued responsibility to the changes which occur with building in the area as well as maintenance of them. The people who work together within the builder’s yard understand and achieve better quality meaningful results; the workmen are uniquely and specifically educated, and the buildings produced are, unlike much of the current construction possess a humane quality, a warm character.The focus on the act of making allows for and evolution and a subsequent greater understanding of everything involved in the construction and about the materials. By making the rammed earth wall within the studio we were pushing the boundaries of predetermined limitations, re-examine the architectural production of rammed earth, and coming up with our own unique response. We explored the possible use of fabric formwork by means of making and testing prototypes on a small scale and then on progressively larger scales we s ee how it uniquely responds to specific methods thus learning learn how the material and structure can better work together, creating a successful wall with fluid innovative shapes, with lower embodied energy.Whilst making our wall every element was specifically made and tested and altered, until the best result were achieved, for example we experimented a lot with the sizes of our buttons, trying to get them to sufficiently restrain the wall –without damaging it when removing them, we were fortunate to stumble upon a size which not only did the job we required but more. This scenario is similar to what happens in the builder’s yard; it is this experimentation –and risk taking which leads to the discovery and sometimes unexpected discovery of innovative solution and inventions. There can be other factors, such as keeping cost down driving the invention of new materials and components. [pic] [pic] [pic] Prototype IAs a group did we met with Roland for a quick bri efing on what direction we should take for our rammed earth wall, he suggested that we should first sit down together and come up with some ideas and sketches to make some prototypes, and that we should also sort out the earth so that it would be ready for when we begin construction. We discussed some ideas about what sort of shaped wall we would like to achieve, including some over ambitious ideas of constructing the walls then flipping it! We agreed we wanted to design a wall to incorporate a curve, a variation in thickness of the wall from bottom to top. We divided into three groups and set about coming up with a design each and building a prototype to text these ideas. Once the earth and fabric had been sorted we each returned to our prototypes, and began to each work out and start making our frame work. Our group decided to make a framework by cutting a .Semi Lunar shape to incorporate some variation in thickness throughout the wall the . Assembling a frame to which we could pi n the fabric to at intervals after each period of . Ramming. The Idea was that one side of the wall would be taut and quite flat and the . other we would periodically place round ties to restrain the wall and create an undulating shape to it. [pic][pic][pic] Basic framework Difficulties with attaching fabric and supporting threads Excessive budging over buttons. Issues highlighted by Prototype 1: †¢ First of all we needed to add further supports as the structure was not as stable as hoped. Tight spaces need to re-think to consider a pneumatic rammer fitting inside the formwork/ framework. †¢ The way the formwork was constructed some of the supports hindered the pinning of the fabric to wood. †¢ The button and tie system we used was not as successful as we hoped- we believed this to be down to the size of the wooden buttons being too small in diameter , which resulted in them become stuck under the overhanging rammed earth and were difficult to remove without causing d amage to the wall. They did not restrain the width of the wall much either, this was also partly due to us leaving the thread too long. Also initially we put on the ties without the wooden disc which resulted in a serious overhang. When we were ramming the earth we did so by hand, using some pieces of wood with flat ends, the highlighted another problem-as due to the way the framework was constructed we had a piece of wood running across the top we made manoeuvring a piece of wood let alone a pneumatic rammer difficult. †¢ Despite having made a definite shape in the base board, to influence the shape of the wall- it in reality had no effect as the fabric took its own shape. †¢ The need to be taught correctly how to mix the earth and test it. †¢ The need to not put too much earth in at each layer as the lower down parts were not getting properly compressed [pic] [pic] Prototype IIThis prototype consisted of 3 wooden sides and a wooden base cut with a curve the fabric w as then pinned to the front and around the curve – the idea being that pinning the fabric to the curved base would create a curved facade. However this prototype was pretty unsuccessful – it suffered structural issues and was not strong enough to withstand the pressure of the rammed earth inside, as it was simply nailed together. The fabric also failed to restrain the form of the wall and budged with little shape. Another issue was that as this prototype required a wooden base beneath it, -not so practical! – In reality this would be likely to make the wall less structurally sound- and would be pretty impossible to remove as a rammed earth wall is extremely heavy. In conclusion this wall was a failure. [pic] SOIL TESTING [pic]Compressing the soil then dropping from arms length away. EARTH PREPARATION Whilst making the first prototype our earth was not of the correct consistency – which resulted in our wall crumbling a bit. We had used the earth which we h ad moved indoor on day one – we added some water to the clay- thinking this would help the earth-stick and compact better. It wasn’t until Rowland came on the 3rd day and was able to tell us immediately, the mistakes we had made, and then showed us the correct for mixing, preparing and testing the earth. We broke down our prototypes returning the earth to the pile and also broke down the previous year’s pillars so the soil could be recycled. [pic] [pic]At first we used the pneumatic rammer to break down these pillars- this was also our first encounter with using the pneumatic rammer, so we learned some general things about using it – safety precautions with turning it on and off, how it must be held, and despite having identified issues of safety in our risk assessment – not many precautions were taken – wearing of safety clothing/boots/goggles. We then began to break it up further using shovels and spades- a lot of dust had been created by this process so we got buckets of water and using bottles threw water over the earth and clay. Once it had all been broken down we began to mix it altogether whilst adding water at the same time. The earth needed to be constantly moved and shovelled – thoroughly so that it’s would be of the same consistency throughout. When the appearance of the mix changed and seemed to be getting close to what we wanted – it looked darker and less dry and dusty, we began to testing it.To test the soil we picked up a handful – squeezed it tightly between both hands, then holding it at arm’s length away from the body- arm held straight – dropped the earth from this height and if it broke into 3 main pieces then we would know that it was ready to ram. It took several testing remixing / adding extra moisture attempts before we did get the earth just right. We also needed to continue testing the earth as over the days it could dry out – so we regularly m ixed the soil and tested it adding water when necessary. PROTOYPE III On the third day, when Rowland came and saw each of our sub groups prototypes. He was able to give us feedback, and give us some explanation to why some things had occurred which we hadn’t expect. In our prototype the spacing of the buttons presenting some issues, as did the several elements of the framework.As a group with the help of Rowland we began work on another prototype, again involving a curve, this time a more defined one with the hope it would have an impact on the shape of the wall. This time however we were to make are formwork as minimal as possible. At first we used just two pieces of wood placed either side of the fabric, and at the other end we used thread to sew it up. Sewing a few inches at a time, to make manoeuvring the pneumatic rammer easier. It was then decided we would place a piece of timber at one end-to achieve a flat surface. We spaced the buttons further apart from each other a nd more evenly spaced. We made planned the wall so it would be 1. 5m long but due to the excess budging which occurred it was approx 1. 2m in length and 1. m high, we positioned 3 rows of 2 button / thread equally spaced. Also when with the previous prototype when we placed the threads simply did so and then proceeded to ram the earth, however this presented a problem when it came to trying to remove then- it was really not possible to remove then without serious damage to the wall occurring. So to avoid this problem, we used some plastic tubing, through which the threads would sit, this would allow use to remove the threads and re use them again within the same wall. When using these we had to be careful whilst ramming and not hit or cause excess pressure on the threads as they could break or bend. [pic][pic][pic][pic]Tubing covering Threads Button buckling under pressure sewing of one side wooden panel at other side When ramming the wall we added a few inches of earth at a time, m aking sure that it was even first then rammed it until it compressed down and then added the next layer- it is quite a long process. It was necessary to ram the edges first keeping the rammer moving at all times moving from the edges inwards, ramming around the thread/tubes until it was at a point where enough earth was above the thread it was safe to ram on top. This prototype was largely successful the few things were again highlighted which we would resolve within the final piece.Again something highlighted by the buttons; was that because of the way we made them- 75mm diameter, bigger than in the first prototype, but they were made using thinner wood than before and due to the pressure of the rammed earth above the buttons- they had actually buckled and bent. This however was a positive thing as they both allowed them to be removed easily-and without damaging the wall, and also created a nice effect on the wall aesthetically. [pic] [pic]Final Wall We had been quite successful in our final prototype so our intention was pretty much scale this up for our final wall. We began by cutting a piece of timber to create a hole sized 1. m by 300mm, to which the fabric which we had cut 4m x 2. 2m was then pinned to the underside of the piece of wood- to keep it in place and restrained during ramming. We used on piece timber 2m x 300mm on one end which we nailed to the fabric and base board at One end, to achieve our flatter surface, and on the other end, we used the method of sewing to create a more curvaceous crafted appearance. The fabric was sewn at intervals, approx 30mm at a time. The Earth which we had prepared as outlined- in Earth preparation, had 2-3 people constantly working to keep its consistency and moisture content even, and at interval shovel it into the structure.Earth was filled and evened out at approx 15mm at a time and then rammed and compressed down. Two people were needed to ram at all times, with 2-3 supporting people, holding material, and als o as we got higher and higher- needed to help hold and steel the pneumatic rammer as it became more and more difficult with height. The process of ramming would begin once the earth had been levelled, begging at edges and moving systematically towards the centre, taking care when approaching the plastic tubes containing the treads and attached to the buttons- directly ramming above them could cause them to bend and distort the shape and support they gave.At 350-400mm vertical spacing’s buttons and threads were attached, piercing the fabric with a knife to create a hole through which the threads within their plastic tubes were placed, to the end of these on the exteriors of the fabric were placed the buttons, which were had cut 75mm in diameter using a piece of thin piece of wood approx 7mm thick. These buttons, along with supporting washers and bolt could later be removed along with the actual thread, and reused. The buttons etc were placed at 300mm horizontal intervals. The Spacing was determined from out prototype as the best spacing to create enough support, least uncontrolled bulging, without over restraining the structure.This added the restraint of the wall, the crafting of curvaceous shapes and ease of removal of components. The making of the wall comprised of adding earth the earth then ramming and repeating this process until 350-400mm height was achieved, then addition of the threads and buttons and repeating again until we reached 2m height. All the while we also were constantly maintaining and controlling the earth consistency by turning, adding moisture and regularly testing as explained earlier. As we reached higher –more people were required to aid the steering and supporting of the pneumatic rammers, but as we had less soil we were able to sacrifice people from this.In reality on a larger scale project this may not be a solution that could work, however as our means of reaching higher and higher was a series of standing on chairs and then tables and even some risque chairs on table, this would definitely not happen on a real site as it would most certainly be violating all sorts of health and safety rules, adequate scaffolding would be used and people the people working on ramming and earth maintenance would remain constant. Once the wall had been rammed until the top and almost all of our soil supply had been used, we were able to take down the fabric formwork, which took comparatively little time to assembly and construction. We unscrewed the buttons removing them which care†¦ just in case†¦. hey had in the same way with the prototype buckled under the strain and had curved round so once removed left a beautiful perfectly ball like shape, and we quite easy to removing, causing no damage to the structure, after that we cut the fabric to remove it, it was very easy on the side with the wood, coming away leaving a very flat surface, on the other side, some more care was taken not to damage the impri nt of the sewing, though more care was taken than was probably needed- the deceptively soft look of the wall made one think it might just crumble away, which was of course not the case, it was more delicate at edges such at the ends that were sewn, but very durable. The only part of the wall which really presented any issues when removing the fabric was the bottom, of course the fabric pinned beneath could not be removed, but as the wall had bulged over the wooden base trapping fabric below, we had to cut around the bulges leaving fragments of the fabric stuck beneath- it was just impossible to remove, but they were not noticeable after edges were trimmed, and neither affected the strength or overall appearance of the wall.The only implication if would have in real building sites would the amount of fabric salvaged from each construction would be less , and whilst it could be reused, the size of fabric over time would shrink and shrink. [pic] The changes to the design we did make fr om our previous prototype were: †¢ We discarded the idea of incorporating the curve as in every attempt so far had been unsuccessful, having no affected on the shape of the wall. So we simply cut a straight rectangular shape into our baseboard. †¢ Rather than having two pieces of wood either side of the fabric then bolted together and the piece of timber then placed inside the piece, we used the one piece of wood at one end and attached the fabric to that. As the wall was going to be longer we would be using 3 button / threads per row and having 4 rows We stuck with the method of sewing up the other side as it had been quite successful in the last wall, however in the final wall throughout the process of ramming it became apparent that it was leaning quite a bit particularly at the top of the wall- as can be seen in the final photograph. [pic]FINAL WALL [pic] Conclusion During the course of construction we learned a lot about building with rammed earth. Before this week I believed that building the wall would be a lot more complicated than it actually is, and I found it fascinating at how much could be achieved with some Fabric, thread, very little wood, some buttons and some earth!It was interesting the affect that the stitching, buttons and wood had on the wall- a very unique finish could be achieved and the structure was so strong and solid despite of it looking much like a giant cushion. The first thing we did in preparation for construction week was our risk assessment- however despite highlighting various precautionary measures we should take – in reality we took almost none. However I think that the risk assessment was still quite accurate in assessing the risk it was wrong not to observe the suggested measures. We did at times wear goggles when the dust simply made it impossible to see what we were doing when ramming, and we did take great care when using the ramming equipment as its use carried the most danger. But in the end I think fashion won out over the use of goggles, masks, boots and gloves.The Buttons which we used were probably the most successful thing that came out of our construction week. Although by complete accident. Because we had used a thinner piece of wood for our buttons in the final prototype when we rammed the wall – the buttons buckled under the pressure and at first we thought that this was another failure, but in the end it turned out this worked in our favour- they were easy to remove without damaging the wall, but also gave a very clean nice rounded indentation- success! [pic][pic] [pic] The Rammed Earth wall and construction methods we used differs from the conventional way in which a rammed earth wall is made by using fabric as formwork as opposed to wood or metal as is the norm.Within UEL the students and staff are pioneering the use of fabric formwork with rammed earth – which has otherwise been left unexplored as a method. In previous year in UEL students and staff h ave also experimented with fabric to make rammed earth columns. The use of fabric in other construction methods such as concrete has been successful, well received and used more and more in various new and innovative ways. The wall which we built was largely a success in all aspects of shape, height, strength and texture. Making it very possible that this project, could lead the way for further use of fabric formwork within the field of rammed earth constructions.It has been proven successful and there is no reason that this method could not be adopted as a viable means of construction in mainstream rammed earth constructions. The Reasons why constructing a rammed earth wall using fabric is better than current method are numerous: ? Sustainability ? The use of low embodied energy rammed in conjunction with fabric resulted in an ultra ecological combo. ? The fabric can be used and reused, as can the buttons and threads ? Beauty ? Sculpted texture created when using fabric can be quit e desirable, and will be depending upon specific fabric choice ? The Positioning of the buttons will also impact upon the finished appearance. The effect achieved with our wall was that of a large cushion As there are fewer limitations on the size of fabric which can be used as there are when using wood – where marks from joints are unavoidable. ? Rapid construction and deconstruction of formwork. ? Fewer things are needed to construct a wall when using fabric, so in principle this method could be used in obscure locations where communications are poor, as transpiration would not pose as much of a problem as it would if using heavy –bulky formwork, provided of course the earth could be found on site. ? Expense –Fabric is less expensive than conventional formwork, fabric formwork is approx 1/25th [5] the cost of dimensional lumber ? Less Weight- weighting approx 1/300th[6] of rigid formwork. There are too, reasons why using fabric formworks may not be favoured. ? Manpower The way in which we constructed our wall required people to do various different things simultaneously, ramming, holding the fabric to keep it tense, shovelling the earth into the wall, turning the soil to maintain moisture consistency. In general at any one time we required 7-8 people so building on a larger scale could present issues of number of people required. Although alternative method of turning the soil or holding the fabric could be adapted. ? Appearance ? The fabric restrained appearance may not be appropriate to the design and desired look. ? Height restrictions ? Whilst there are no specific height restrictions associated with fabric form work- it is an aspect of this construction method- yet to be explored fully- our wall was just less than 2m, what would happen when the height would be increased?Would there be significant implication affecting thickness of the wall? Budging is not as controlled with fabric as with wooden formwork. One of the great things I s aw from our construction week was working together with a set of people for one week for a common goal- we achieved so much, learning from each other sharing ideas and testing them, One can really see how this is in some small way how the builders yard idea must function, and therefore I would believe it to be a really successful idea. If a small group of people in one week can create this unique rammed earth wall- then communities of people working together on projects of greater long-term significance to them i. e. heir homes their neighbourhood the places they will spend their lives, with such vested interested interests, and working on larger scales over longer periods should be creating all sorts of innovative building techniques, materials and components. Bibliography Buildings of Earth and Straw: structural design for Rammed Earth and Straw; Bruce King Introduction to health and safety in Construction; P. Hughes Martin Rauch: Rammed Earth; Kapfinger, Otto Rammed Earth: Design and Construction guidelines; Peter Walker, Rowland Keable Rammed Earth Structures: a code of justice; Julian Keatle The Architect – Builder The rammed earth house / Photographs by Cynthia Wright; David EastonTS Intuition & Process; Peter Salter Essay: Re-viewing the builder’s yard as a place for design and Visualization; Charlie Hailey, Ph. D. www. eartharchitecture. org/ www. earthstructures. co. uk www. greenspec. co. uk www. historicrammedearth. co. uk www. historicrammedearth. wordpress. com www. listserv. repp. org/pipermail/greenbuilding www. rammed-earth. info www. rammedearth. davis. net. au www. terrafirmabuilders. ca ———————– [1] http://www. earthstructures. co. uk/feature_sra_amended. pdf [2] http://www. earthstructures. co. uk/feature_sra_amended. pdf [3] www. greenspec. co. uk [4] www. greenspec. co. uk [5] www. fab-form. com [6] www. fab-form. com